2401 The seventh commandment forbids unjustly taking or keeping the goods of one's neighbor and wronging him in any way with respect to his goods. It commands justice and charity in the care of earthly goods and the fruits of men's labor. For the sake of the common good, it requires respect for the universal destination of goods and respect for the right to private property. Christian life strives to order this world's goods to God and to fraternal charity.
2402 In the beginning God entrusted the earth and its resources to the common stewardship of mankind to take care of them, master them by labor, and enjoy their fruits.[186] The goods of creation are destined for the whole human race. However, the earth is divided up among men to assure the security of their lives, endangered by poverty and threatened by violence. The appropriation of property is legitimate for guaranteeing the freedom and dignity of persons and for helping each of them to meet his basic needs and the needs of those in his charge. It should allow for a natural solidarity to develop between men.
2403 The right to private property, acquired by work or received from others by inheritance or gift, does not do away with the original gift of the earth to the whole of mankind. The universal destination of goods remains primordial, even if the promotion of the common good requires respect for the right to private property and its exercise.
2404 "In his use of things man should regard the external goods he legitimately owns not merely as exclusive to himself but common to others also, in the sense that they can benefit others as well as himself."[187] The ownership of any property makes its holder a steward of Providence, with the task of making it fruitful and communicating its benefits to others, first of all his family.
2405 Goods of production - material or immaterial - such as land, factories, practical or artistic skills, oblige their possessors to employ them in ways that will benefit the greatest number. Those who hold goods for use and consumption should use them with moderation, reserving the better part for guests, for the sick and the poor.
2406 Political authority has the right and duty to regulate the legitimate exercise of the right to ownership for the sake of the common good.[188]
2407 In economic matters, respect for human dignity requires the practice of the virtue of temperance, so as to moderate attachment to this world's goods; the practice of the virtue of justice, to preserve our neighbor's rights and render him what is his due; and the practice of solidarity, in accordance with the golden rule and in keeping with the generosity of the Lord, who "though he was rich, yet for your sake . . . became poor so that by his poverty, you might become rich."[189]
2408 The seventh commandment forbids theft, that is, usurping another's property against the reasonable will of the owner. There is no theft if consent can be presumed or if refusal is contrary to reason and the universal destination of goods. This is the case in obvious and urgent necessity when the only way to provide for immediate, essential needs (food, shelter, clothing . . .) is to put at one's disposal and use the property of others.[190]
2409 Even if it does not contradict the provisions of civil law, any form
of unjustly taking and keeping the property of others is against the
seventh commandment: thus, deliberate retention of goods lent or of
objects lost; business fraud; paying unjust wages; forcing up prices by
taking advantage of the ignorance or hardship of another.[191]
The following are also morally illicit: speculation in which one contrives
to manipulate the price of goods artificially in order to gain an
advantage to the detriment of others; corruption in which one influences
the judgment of those who must make decisions according to law;
appropriation and use for private purposes of the common goods of an
enterprise; work poorly done; tax evasion; forgery of checks and invoices;
excessive expenses and waste. Willfully damaging private or public
property is contrary to the moral law and requires reparation.
2410 Promises must be kept and contracts strictly observed to the extent that the commitments made in them are morally just. A significant part of economic and social life depends on the honoring of contracts between physical or moral persons - commercial contracts of purchase or sale, rental or labor contracts. All contracts must be agreed to and executed in good faith.
2411 Contracts are subject to commutative justice which regulates
exchanges between persons in accordance with a strict respect for their
rights. Commutative justice obliges strictly; it requires safeguarding
property rights, paying debts, and fulfilling obligations freely
contracted. Without commutative justice, no other form of justice is
possible.
One distinguishes commutative justice from legal justice which concerns
what the citizen owes in fairness to the community, and from distributive
justice which regulates what the community owes its citizens in proportion
to their contributions and needs.
2412 In virtue of commutative justice, reparation for injustice committed
requires the restitution of stolen goods to their owner:
Jesus blesses Zacchaeus for his pledge: "If I have defrauded anyone of
anything, I restore it fourfold."[192] Those who, directly or indirectly,
have taken possession of the goods of another, are obliged to make
restitution of them, or to return the equivalent in kind or in money, if
the goods have disappeared, as well as the profit or advantages their
owner would have legitimately obtained from them. Likewise, all who in
some manner have taken part in a theft or who have knowingly benefited
from it - for example, those who ordered it, assisted in it, or received
the stolen goods - are obliged to make restitution in proportion to their
responsibility and to their share of what was stolen.
2413 Games of chance (card games, etc.) or wagers are not in themselves contrary to justice. They become morally unacceptable when they deprive someone of what is necessary to provide for his needs and those of others. The passion for gambling risks becoming an enslavement. Unfair wagers and cheating at games constitute grave matter, unless the damage inflicted is so slight that the one who suffers it cannot reasonably consider it significant.
2414 The seventh commandment forbids acts or enterprises that for any reason - selfish or ideological, commercial, or totalitarian - lead to the enslavement of human beings, to their being bought, sold and exchanged like merchandise, in disregard for their personal dignity. It is a sin against the dignity of persons and their fundamental rights to reduce them by violence to their productive value or to a source of profit. St. Paul directed a Christian master to treat his Christian slave "no longer as a slave but more than a slave, as a beloved brother, . . . both in the flesh and in the Lord."[193]
2415 The seventh commandment enjoins respect for the integrity of creation. Animals, like plants and inanimate beings, are by nature destined for the common good of past, present, and future humanity.[194] Use of the mineral, vegetable, and animal resources of the universe cannot be divorced from respect for moral imperatives. Man's dominion over inanimate and other living beings granted by the Creator is not absolute; it is limited by concern for the quality of life of his neighbor, including generations to come; it requires a religious respect for the integrity of creation.[195]
2416 Animals are God's creatures. He surrounds them with his providential care. By their mere existence they bless him and give him glory.[196] Thus men owe them kindness. We should recall the gentleness with which saints like St. Francis of Assisi or St. Philip Neri treated animals.
2417 God entrusted animals to the stewardship of those whom he created in his own image.[197] Hence it is legitimate to use animals for food and clothing. They may be domesticated to help man in his work and leisure. Medical and scientific experimentation on animals is a morally acceptable practice, if it remains within reasonable limits and contributes to caring for or saving human lives.
2418 It is contrary to human dignity to cause animals to suffer or die needlessly. It is likewise unworthy to spend money on them that should as a priority go to the relief of human misery. One can love animals; one should not direct to them the affection due only to persons.
2419 "Christian revelation . . . promotes deeper understanding of the laws of social living."[198] The Church receives from the Gospel the full revelation of the truth about man. When she fulfills her mission of proclaiming the Gospel, she bears witness to man, in the name of Christ, to his dignity and his vocation to the communion of persons. She teaches him the demands of justice and peace in conformity with divine wisdom.
2420 The Church makes a moral judgment about economic and social matters, "when the fundamental rights of the person or the salvation of souls requires it."[199] In the moral order she bears a mission distinct from that of political authorities: the Church is concerned with the temporal aspects of the common good because they are ordered to the sovereign Good, our ultimate end. She strives to inspire right attitudes with respect to earthly goods and in socio-economic relationships.
2421 The social doctrine of the Church developed in the nineteenth century when the Gospel encountered modern industrial society with its new structures for the production of consumer goods, its new concept of society, the state and authority, and its new forms of labor and ownership. The development of the doctrine of the Church on economic and social matters attests the permanent value of the Church's teaching at the same time as it attests the true meaning of her Tradition, always living and active.[200]
2422 The Church's social teaching comprises a body of doctrine, which is articulated as the Church interprets events in the course of history, with the assistance of the Holy Spirit, in the light of the whole of what has been revealed by Jesus Christ.[201] This teaching can be more easily accepted by men of good will, the more the faithful let themselves be guided by it.
2423 The Church's social teaching proposes principles for reflection; it
provides criteria for judgment; it gives guidelines for action:
Any system in which social relationships are determined entirely by
economic factors is contrary to the nature of the human person and his
acts.[202]
2424 A theory that makes profit the exclusive norm and ultimate end of
economic activity is morally unacceptable. The disordered desire for money
cannot but produce perverse effects. It is one of the causes of the many
conflicts which disturb the social order.[203]
A system that "subordinates the basic rights of individuals and of groups
to the collective organization of production" is contrary to human
dignity.[204] Every practice that reduces persons to nothing more than a
means of profit enslaves man, leads to idolizing money, and contributes to
the spread of atheism. "You cannot serve God and mammon."[205]
2425 The Church has rejected the totalitarian and atheistic ideologies associated in modem times with "communism" or "socialism." She has likewise refused to accept, in the practice of "capitalism," individualism and the absolute primacy of the law of the marketplace over human labor.[206] Regulating the economy solely by centralized planning perverts the basis of social bonds; regulating it solely by the law of the marketplace fails social justice, for "there are many human needs which cannot be satisfied by the market."[207] Reasonable regulation of the marketplace and economic initiatives, in keeping with a just hierarchy of values and a view to the common good, is to be commended.
2426 The development of economic activity and growth in production are meant to provide for the needs of human beings. Economic life is not meant solely to multiply goods produced and increase profit or power; it is ordered first of all to the service of persons, of the whole man, and of the entire human community. Economic activity, conducted according to its own proper methods, is to be exercised within the limits of the moral order, in keeping with social justice so as to correspond to God's plan for man.[208]
2427 Human work proceeds directly from persons created in the image of God and called to prolong the work of creation by subduing the earth, both with and for one another.[209] Hence work is a duty: "If any one will not work, let him not eat."[210] Work honors the Creator's gifts and the talents received from him. It can also be redemptive. By enduring the hardship of work[211] in union with Jesus, the carpenter of Nazareth and the one crucified on Calvary, man collaborates in a certain fashion with the Son of God in his redemptive work. He shows himself to be a disciple of Christ by carrying the cross, daily, in the work he is called to accomplish.[212] Work can be a means of sanctification and a way of animating earthly realities with the Spirit of Christ.
2428 In work, the person exercises and fulfills in part the potential
inscribed in his nature. The primordial value of labor stems from man
himself, its author and its beneficiary. Work is for man, not man for
work.[213]
Everyone should be able to draw from work the means of providing for his
life and that of his family, and of serving the human community.
2429 Everyone has the right of economic initiative; everyone should make legitimate use of his talents to contribute to the abundance that will benefit all and to harvest the just fruits of his labor. He should seek to observe regulations issued by legitimate authority for the sake of the common good.[214]
2430 Economic life brings into play different interests, often opposed to one another. This explains why the conflicts that characterize it arise.[215] Efforts should be made to reduce these conflicts by negotiation that respects the rights and duties of each social partner: those responsible for business enterprises, representatives of wage- earners (for example, trade unions), and public authorities when appropriate.
2431 The responsibility of the state. "Economic activity, especially the activity of a market economy, cannot be conducted in an institutional, juridical, or political vacuum. On the contrary, it presupposes sure guarantees of individual freedom and private property, as well as a stable currency and efficient public services. Hence the principal task of the state is to guarantee this security, so that those who work and produce can enjoy the fruits of their labors and thus feel encouraged to work efficiently and honestly.... Another task of the state is that of overseeing and directing the exercise of human rights in the economic sector. However, primary responsibility in this area belongs not to the state but to individuals and to the various groups and associations which make up society."[216]
2432 Those responsible for business enterprises are responsible to society for the economic and ecological effects of their operations.[217] They have an obligation to consider the good of persons and not only the increase of profits. Profits are necessary, however. They make possible the investments that ensure the future of a business and they guarantee employment.
2433 Access to employment and to professions must be open to all without unjust discrimination: men and women, healthy and disabled, natives and immigrants.[218] For its part society should, according to circumstances, help citizens find work and employment.[219]
2434 A just wage is the legitimate fruit of work. To refuse or withhold it can be a grave injustice.[220] In determining fair pay both the needs and the contributions of each person must be taken into account. "Remuneration for work should guarantee man the opportunity to provide a dignified livelihood for himself and his family on the material, social, cultural and spiritual level, taking into account the role and the productivity of each, the state of the business, and the common good."[221] Agreement between the parties is not sufficient to justify morally the amount to be received in wages.
2435 Recourse to a strike is morally legitimate when it cannot be avoided,
or at least when it is necessary to obtain a proportionate benefit. It
becomes morally unacceptable when accompanied by violence, or when
objectives are included that are not directly linked to working conditions
or are contrary to the common good.
2437 On the international level, inequality of resources and economic
capability is such that it creates a real "gap" between nations.[223] On
the one side there are those nations possessing and developing the means
of growth and, on the other, those accumulating debts.
2438 Various causes of a religious, political, economic, and financial
nature today give "the social question a worldwide dimension."[224] There
must be solidarity among nations which are already politically
interdependent. It is even more essential when it is a question of
dismantling the "perverse mechanisms" that impede the development of the
less advanced countries.[225] In place of abusive if not usurious
financial systems, iniquitous commercial relations among nations, and the
arms race, there must be substituted a common effort to mobilize resources
toward objectives of moral, cultural, and economic development,
"redefining the priorities and hierarchies of values."[226]
2439 Rich nations have a grave moral responsibility toward those which are
unable to ensure the means of their development by themselves or have been
prevented from doing so by tragic historical events. It is a duty in
solidarity and charity; it is also an obligation in justice if the
prosperity of the rich nations has come from resources that have not been
paid for fairly.
2440 Direct aid is an appropriate response to immediate, extraordinary
needs caused by natural catastrophes, epidemics, and the like. But it does
not suffice to repair the grave damage resulting from destitution or to
provide a lasting solution to a country's needs. It is also necessary to
reform international economic and financial institutions so that they will
better promote equitable relationships with less advanced countries.[227]
The efforts of poor countries working for growth and liberation must be
supported.[228] This doctrine must be applied especially in the area of
agricultural labor. Peasants, especially in the Third World, form the
overwhelming majority of the poor.
2441 An increased sense of God and increased self-awareness are
fundamental to any full development of human society. This development
multiplies material goods and puts them at the service of the person and
his freedom. It reduces dire poverty and economic exploitation. It makes
for growth in respect for cultural identities and openness to the
transcendent.[229]
2442 It is not the role of the Pastors of the Church to intervene directly
in the political structuring and organization of social life. This task is
part of the vocation of the lay faithful, acting on their own initiative
with their fellow citizens. Social action can assume various concrete
forms. It should always have the common good in view and be in conformity
with the message of the Gospel and the teaching of the Church. It is the
role of the laity "to animate temporal realities with Christian
commitment, by which they show that they are witnesses and agents of peace
and justice."[230]
2443 God blesses those who come to the aid of the poor and rebukes those
who turn away from them: "Give to him who begs from you, do not refuse him
who would borrow from you"; "you received without pay, give without
pay."[231] It is by what they have done for the poor that Jesus Christ
will recognize his chosen ones.[232] When "the poor have the good news
preached to them," it is the sign of Christ's presence.[233]
2444 "The Church's love for the poor . . . is a part of her constant
tradition." This love is inspired by the Gospel of the Beatitudes, of the
poverty of Jesus, and of his concern for the poor.[234] Love for the poor
is even one of the motives for the duty of working so as to "be able to
give to those in need."[235] It extends not only to material poverty but
also to the many forms of cultural and religious poverty.[236]
2445 Love for the poor is incompatible with immoderate love of riches or
their selfish use:
2446 St. John Chrysostom vigorously recalls this: "Not to enable the poor
to share in our goods is to steal from them and deprive them of life. The
goods we possess are not ours, but theirs."[238] "The demands of justice
must be satisfied first of all; that which is already due in justice is
not to be offered as a gift of charity":[239]
2447 The works of mercy are charitable actions by which we come to the aid
of our neighbor in his spiritual and bodily necessities.[241] Instructing,
advising, consoling, comforting are spiritual works of mercy, as are
forgiving and bearing wrongs patiently. The corporal works of mercy
consist especially in feeding the hungry, sheltering the homeless,
clothing the naked, visiting the sick and imprisoned, and burying the
dead.[242] Among all these, giving alms to the poor is one of the chief
witnesses to fraternal charity: it is also a work of justice pleasing to
God:[243]
2448 "In its various forms - material deprivation, unjust oppression,
physical and psychological illness and death - human misery is the obvious
sign of the inherited condition of frailty and need for salvation in which
man finds himself as a consequence of original sin. This misery elicited
the compassion of Christ the Savior, who willingly took it upon himself
and identified himself with the least of his brethren. Hence, those who
are oppressed by poverty are the object of a preferential love on the part
of the Church which, since her origin and in spite of the failings of many
of her members, has not ceased to work for their relief, defense, and
liberation through numerous works of charity which remain indispensable
always and everywhere."[247]
2449 Beginning with the Old Testament, all kinds of juridical measures
(the jubilee year of forgiveness of debts, prohibition of loans at
interest and the keeping of collateral, the obligation to tithe, the daily
payment of the day-laborer, the right to glean vines and fields) answer
the exhortation of Deuteronomy: "For the poor will never cease out of the
land; therefore I command you, 'You shall open wide your hand to your
brother, to the needy and to the poor in the land.'"[248] Jesus makes
these words his own: "The poor you always have with you, but you do not
always have me."[249] In so doing he does not soften the vehemence of
former oracles against "buying the poor for silver and the needy for a
pair of sandals . . .," but invites us to recognize his own presence in
the poor who are his brethren:[250]
2450 "You shall not steal" (Ex 20:15; Deut 5:19). "Neither thieves, nor
the greedy . . ., nor robbers will inherit the kingdom of God" (1 Cor
6:10).
2451 The seventh commandment enjoins the practice of justice and charity
in the administration of earthly goods and the fruits of men's labor.
2452 The goods of creation are destined for the entire human race. The
right to private property does not abolish the universal destination of
goods.
2453 The seventh commandment forbids theft. Theft is the usurpation of
another's goods against the reasonable will of the owner.
2454 Every manner of taking and using another's property unjustly is
contrary to the seventh commandment. The injustice committed requires
reparation. Commutative justice requires the restitution of stolen goods.
2455 The moral law forbids acts which, for commercial or totalitarian
purposes, lead to the enslavement of human beings, or to their being
bought, sold or exchanged like merchandise.
2456 The dominion granted by the Creator over the mineral, vegetable, and
animal resources of the universe cannot be separated from respect for
moral obligations, including those toward generations to come.
2457 Animals are entrusted to man's stewardship; he must show them
kindness. They may be used to serve the just satisfaction of man's needs.
2458 The Church makes a judgment about economic and social matters when
the fundamental rights of the person or the salvation of souls requires *.
She is concerned with the temporal common good of men because they are
ordered to the sovereign Good, their ultimate end.
2459 Man is himself the author, center, and goal of all economic and
social life. The decisive point of the social question is that goods
created by God for everyone should in fact reach everyone in accordance
with justice and with the help of charity.
2460 The primordial value of labor stems from man himself, its author and
beneficiary. By means of his labor man participates in the work of
creation. Work united to Christ can be redemptive.
2461 True development concerns the whole man. It is concerned with
increasing each person's ability to respond to his vocation and hence to
God's call (cf. CA 29).
2462 Giving alms to the poor is a witness to fraternal charity: it is also
a work of justice pleasing to God.
2463 How can we not recognize Lazarus, the hungry beggar in the parable
(cf. Lk 17:19-31), in the multitude of human beings without bread, a roof
or a place to stay? How can we fail to hear Jesus: "As you did it not to
one of the least of these, you did it not to me" (Mt 25:45)?
V. JUSTICE AND SOLIDARITY AMONG NATIONS
VI. LOVE FOR THE POOR
Come now, you rich, weep and howl for the miseries that are coming upon
you. Your riches have rotted and your garments are moth-eaten. Your gold
and silver have rusted, and their rust will be evidence against you and
will eat your flesh like fire. You have laid up treasure for the last
days. Behold, the wages of the laborers who mowed your fields, which you
kept back by fraud, cry out; and the cries of the harvesters have reached
the ears of the Lord of hosts. You have lived on the earth in luxury and
in pleasure; you have fattened your hearts in a day of slaughter. You have
condemned, you have killed the righteous man; he does not resist you.[237]
When we attend to the needs of those in want, we give them what is theirs,
not ours. More than performing works of mercy, we are paying a debt of
justice.[240]
He who has two coats, let him share with him who has none and he who has
food must do likewise.[244] But give for alms those things which are
within; and behold, everything is clean for you.[245] If a brother or
sister is ill-clad and in lack of daily food, and one of you says to them,
"Go in peace, be warmed and filled," without giving them the things needed
for the body, what does it profit?[246]
When her mother reproached her for caring for the poor and the sick at
home, St. Rose of Lima said to her: "When we serve the poor and the sick,
we serve Jesus. We must not fail to help our neighbors, because in them we
serve Jesus.[251]
IN BRIEF